Despite the
growing hostilities against the United States, Japan was hesitant to wage war.
This was due in part to Japan’s belief that it needed to be economically
self-sufficient. Japan learned from World War I that modern wars would be
protracted, require total mobilization, and create vulnerabilities for trade
embargos and encirclement. This would require the country to have access to
important resources such as coal and oil, which couldn’t be sufficiently mined
on the home islands.
While Japan’s
hostility toward the United States had been gradually growing since the
rejection of the Racial Equality Proposal, both countries were cordial enough
to remain trading partners. Tensions didn’t seriously grow until Japan invaded
Manchuria in 1931. Over the next ten years, Japan expanded into China,
resulting in the second Sino-Japanese War in 1937. This was part of Japan’s
efforts to continue to isolate China and secure independent resources to secure
victory on mainland Asia. However, despite the growing tensions, the Japanese
remained reliant on oil imports from the United States, including for their
military forces in occupied Manchuria.
Beginning in
December 1937, due in part to events such as Japan’s attack on the USS Panay,
the Allison Incident, and the Nanking Massacre, Western public opinion turned
extremely negative against Japan. The United States went so far as to attempt
to convince the United Kingdom to join them in blockading Japan, but the effort
failed. After an appeal by President Franklin Roosevelt in 1938, American
companies stopped providing war supplies to Japan, which the latter viewed as
an unfriendly act. However, the United States continued to export oil to Japan,
partially due to the growing belief in Washington that given Japan’s dependence
on American oil, cutting them off would be considered an act of war.
In mid-1940, President
Roosevelt moved the Pacific Fleet from San Diego to Hawaii. Roosevelt also ordered
a military buildup in the Philippines. These actions were taken in hopes of discouraging
further military aggression by the Japanese in the Far East. Due to the Japanese
high military command mistakenly believed that any attack on the United Kingdom’s
Southeast Asian colonies, including Singapore, would cause the United States to
enter the war, Japan saw that the only way to prevent American naval involvement
was a devastating preventive strike. The Japanese military also believed an
invasion of the Philippines was necessary as well.
America’s War
Plan Orange had originally been envisioned for the United States defending the
Philippines. However, due to opposition from Douglas MacArthur, this was never implemented.
This was due to MacArthur’s belief that a much bigger military force would be
needed to execute this operation. By 1941, the United States had abandoned the Philippines.
In July of
1941, the United States stopped exporting oil to Japan. This was due to Japan’s
seizure of French Indochina, the Fall of France, and America’s new restrictions
on domestic oil consumption. In response, Japan made plans to invade the oil-rich
Dutch East Indies. However, in mid-August, President Roosevelt warned the
Japanese that the United States was prepared to get involved if “neighboring
countries” were attacked.
In another
attempt to improve relations, the United States and Japan engaged in negotiations
in 1941. During these negotiations, Japan offered to withdraw its forces from most
of China and Indochina after making peace with the Nationalist government. Japan
also proposed to have its own interpretation of the Tripartite Pact and to stop
trade discrimination, provided that other nations agreed to this as well.
However, the United States rejected all three of these proposals.
Japanese Prime
Minister Fumimaro Konoe then offered to meet with President Franklin Roosevelt.
However, Roosevelt declined the meeting because he wanted an agreement to be
reached first. The American Ambassador to Japan, Joseph Clark Grew, urged President
Roosevelt to accept the meeting, warning that it was the only way to keep the conciliatory
Konoe government intact and peace in the Pacific. However, this recommendation was
ultimately never acted upon. A month later, the Konoe government collapsed when
the Japanese military declined to pull its forces from China.
In late November, Japan delivered its final
proposal. Japan offered to withdraw from Indochina and stop further attacks on Southeast
Asia. In return, this required the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands
to provide one million U.S. Gallons of aviation fuel, lift all sanctions
against Japan, and cease sending aid to China. America later countered with the
Hull Note, requiring Japan to completely withdraw from China without conditions
and the end of non-aggressive pacts with other Pacific powers. However, a day
before the Hull Note arrived, Japanese forces had already taken off for Pearl
Harbor.